Metallgesellschaft Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Metallgesellschaft - Case Study Example MGRM's Supervisory Board avoided bankruptcy by liquidating its forward delivery positions in December 1993. MGRM had begun to experience significant growth since 1989 when it acquired 49% stake in Caste Energy as part of its efforts to become a fully integrated oil business in the United States. As MGRM continued to make a series of costly expansions, its fixed-assets values tripled between 1989 and 1991. In a continuing effort to expand its US business, MGRM entered in to forward delivery contracts with Energy end-users at historic low prices during the summer of 1993. However, these contracts exposed MGRM to the risk of rising energy prices. To hedge this price risk, MGRM acquired energy futures at NYMEX and entered into OTC swaps with large OTC swap dealers. However, since future markets do not trade in very long term (10 years in this case), MGRM's strategy was to concentrate its derivatives positions in stacks or short-dated futures. Similarly the swaps had to be rolled forward continuously. MGRM's strategy exposed it to various risks. Its short-dated positions left it exposed to rollover risk. If the prices had risen, MGRM would have made substantial profits. And the opposite was true in case of the prices falling. However historically, energy prices have always shown an upward trend. Over a period of ten years prior to 1993, the energy market had been predominantly in backwardation. MGRM was betting on Energy prices continuing to rise. However, as shown by Edwards and Canter, its rollover risk was only about 15% of its price risk. Had the market been in backwardation, MGRM would have made handsome profits. But in 1993, crude oil was in contango every month, heating oil was in contango every month except March and April and gasoline was in contango every month except August. As a result, MGRM made substantial rollover losses during 1993. MGRM was also exposed to funding risk since its strategy was that of one-to-one hedge instead of a "minimum variance" hedge. This strategy would have worked had there been a one-to-one relationship between forward and spot energy prices. In that case, a fall in the spot prices would have been balanced by an equal and opposite change in the value of its forward delivery contracts. However, as shown by Edwards and Canter, a one-to-one relationship between spot and forward prices does not exist in the energy market. MGRM was also exposed to credit risk due to the long duration of its forward-supply contracts. And once the prices started to fall, this risk further increased as with the increased disparity in spot and contractually fixed price, the risk of the smaller firms defaulting also increased. Finally, MGRM was also exposed to basis risk due to the one-to-one hedge ratio. The timing of the investment in derivatives also went against MGRM. As stated above, 1993 proved to be disastrous year with energy market in contango for most part of the year. The huge size of MGRM's rollover trade was also responsible for increasing these risks. MGRM's huge holdings, equivalent to 160 million barrels, meant that other firms would have looked at MGRM before taking any steps. The size of MGRM's rollover trade could have also been indirectly responsible for pushing down energy prices. Hedging or Speculating There is some debate over whether MGRM's strategy was hedging or speculation. Culp and

The Use of the Set in French New Wave Cinema Research Paper

The Use of the Set in French New Wave Cinema - Research Paper Example One of these elements was the use of the set. The purpose of this paper is to explore the use of the set in French new-wave cinema, particularly by focusing on the work of Jean-Luc Godard and Francois Truffaut; two prominent examples of filmmakers of the era. This will be examined in the context of the effect that this has on the character development in this genre of film. The use of real-life sets and the additional differences in perception has a significant effect on the characters of the film, who often present themselves in the same disjointed and spontaneous manner as the real life sets. The Use of Set & Theatrical Scenery in French New-Wave Cinema For a variety of reasons explored below, the typical French new-wave director would choose to produce a film set within an area that was familiar to them, usually exploring the French middle-class youth and setting the scenes in recognizable areas (Neupert, 2007). Perhaps the best way to capture the spirit of France at the time was to use real-life locations rather than contrived sets, as had been done previously, and a number of participants in the films were real-life individuals. As the movement developed, a number of the directors (particularly Godard) began to move into the use of studio sets, although conscious efforts were made to avoid replicating the very style the French new-wave had been rebelling against, often trying to replicate the lighting and sound interruptions that came with filming within ‘reality’ (Marie & Neupert, 2003). One if the most important aspects of French new-wave cinema is that those involved were often limited in funding, and many of the films therefore relied on makeshift elements. Filming on the streets allowed these new French directors to avoid some of the financial constraints that had been associated with filmmaking in the past (Neupert, 2007). In the 1960 film Breathless (A bout de souffle), for example, many of the elements were completely improvised. The u se of improvisation meant that the theatrical scenery was not constructed or purposefully used, and no permission was gained to shoot scenes on the boulevards of Paris (Turner, 1983). This was essentially done to create a spontaneous feel to the film, but may have been a result of the tight budget constraints on the film. Additionally, the film was designed to be in reportage (documentary) style, which means that the use of contrived set would have been unnecessary (Graham & Vincendeau, 2009). The conscious decision to avoid the use of a proper theatrical set in Breathless is typical of the rejection of classical cinematic form in French new-wave (Turner, 1983). Godard’s Contempt (Le Mepris) is another important example of film from this movement. Released in 1963, Contempt starts Brigitte Bardot in an adaptation of the Italian novel Il disprezzo. In contrast to Breathless, Contempt does not rely on already existing architecture and scene elements for the set, which much of t he filming being done at the legendary Cinecitta studios in Italy (Neupert, 2007). As a result of this choice, Contempt has less of spontaneous feel, and some consider the film to be less of an example of the contrary nature of French new-wave due to the use of these prepared sets (Hayes, 2004). Contempt was additionally not designed to be shot in reportage style, and therefore the use of prepared

Concepts on pilgrimage as a social process

Concepts on pilgrimage as a social process To what extent do Turners concepts of liminality and communitas cast light on pilgrimage as a social process? The concepts of liminality and comunitas is evanescent, like a wisp of smoke in the wind. (Shure, 2005) It attempts to achieve some formalization of a social process in a theoretically perspective, though academically this can be achieved; it is very hard to master the full and in-depth concept of the pilgrimage. As all academic essays require the clear and standard definition of the question, Turners concepts will subsequently be explained and furthermore the meaning behind both the pilgrimage and social process will be dealt with in detail. Turner draws on concepts of Van Genneps model of rites of passage; liminality is a state of transition argued by Turner, it is neither here nor there; they are betwixt and between the positions assigned and arrayed by law, custom, convention, and ceremonial. (Turner, 1969, p. 95) The attempt of the essay will show how the liminality iden tifies itself as period of transition with the social process of a pilgrimage, identify the equality and communitas will attempt to illustrate the process of a pilgrimage, however is structure truly lost during a pilgrimage and what is the concept of a social process and does a pilgrimage really fit into this definition, is a pilgrimage one of equality and individuality or that of a structured formation or a social experience. The rite of passage, focuses on the fact that a member of a group neither belongs to the group she was a part of or the group she will belong to after the luminal stage has been completed. A typical liminal stage can be seen as the child between becoming an adult and staying a child, puberty as a liminal stage in every individual persons own life pilgrimage. (Turner V. E., 1978) Continuing with the notion of liminal periods one can observe that in Mary Douglas Purity and Danger, illustrates that the individual is a polluting force on the external groups as liminal individuals are of no status, insigniakinship position, nothing to demarcate them structurally (Turner V. , The forst of symbols: Aspects of Ndembu ritual, 1967, p. 98) Liminality, In the use of Van Genneps model of the three, Turner illustrates the phases of the ritual, the ritual is an catalyst and exemplifies the transitional period. The transitional period is identified as the liminal period. (Turner V. , 1967, p. 94) S eclusion from everyday life is a typical consequence to the liminal period which is the attempt to remove the individual from the society, subsequently forcing the individual into an interior pilgrimage of development of self. The application of classification is often used, in doing so this continues the transition and the removal of previous identity, furthermore denoting the status of transition. Turner develops this concept further in the ambiguity that is suggested, the concept of seclusion, and the non identification of the individual of gender or class. Turner continues to suggest the equality of this transitional period however many anthropologist are hesitant to apply this to an overall spectrum as in various societies the formation of structure is still imposed. (Turner V. , 1967) Turners three phase concept is simplistic in concept and difficult in application, phase one being the communication of sacra, where secret symbols are communicated to the ritual subjects in the form of exhibitions of sacred articles, actions, and instructions; the symbols represent the unity and continuity of the community. This then transcends into the liminal period of ludic deconstruction (Deflem, 1991, p. 13) and then subsequently the recombination of the individual; Turner develops on this and we move into the phase three, which is the removal of all social structure and what is left is solely the authority of the instructor and aim of the ritual. (Turner V. E., 1978) This phase three fuelled Turner into formalising the concept of Communitas as the identification of one. Anti-structure and Communitas are blood brothers in the opposition to structure, Turner clearly notes that communitas is present within in a liminal stage when structure is not present (Turner V. , 1969, pp. 94-96) as criticised above Turner clearly identifies this to be present within a period of liminality in a ritual process. The removal of all social elements and the exclusion from this constitutes a community bond, one of human kindness; constituting this ritual communitas of individuals in a separate transition society such as the concept of limbo between heaven and hell, between life and death. Turner further explains communitas in the Ritual Process, explaining that they refer to two further modalities of society. (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974) A Dialectic process between various communitas, a general view of equality of individuals (later works such as Eade argue against this concept) and that of the structured individuals in a hierarchical system such as in t he Hindu religion. The Dialectic has been used throughout time such as in Revolutions and the maximization of communitas provokes maximization of structure, which in turn produces revolutionary strivings for renewed communitus. (Turner V. , 1969, p. 129) Communitas is observed as something that is a phase in a process of a ritual not something that will continue after the process has been completed as the fate of any type of communitas is inevitably a decline and fall into structure and law (Turner V. , 1969, p. 132), after which a new form of communitas may rise again. (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974, p. 282) The concept of a pilgrimage and the community are centred to many scholarly debates, Eade and Sallnow question the role of the pilgrimage in sustaining or negating the social structure. (Sallnow, 1981) In following onto the concept that is discussed, the contrast to Marxist understanding to the pilgrimage as a structural maintenance juxtaposed with Turners pilgrimage concept of spontaneous communitas. Therefore in discussion of the experience does it not bind one to the larger concept of a community? (Eade J. a., 1991, p. 5) The pilgrimage is an area of anthropology that had lacked any in-depth focus within the field till Turners Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture and when formalising concepts on the pilgrimage one is prone to focus on the most powerful rituals performed by religious members and not necessarily the simplistic rituals of everyday life Eade Coleman suggest that pilgrimage has been neglected due to this assertion of a pilgrimage of a liminal nature, and that of a daily life furthermore suggesting that a pilgrimage is something of extraordinary nature such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, a pilgrimage to a holy shrine Why in this definition has pilgrimage has been removed from everyday life and imposed on that of a religious ritual background, one could suggest that the simplistic notion of going in search of a new pair of shoes or a job is a pilgrimage of the individual. In doing so one is removing themselves from the pre-persona and transition into the new entity and within this liminal stage they are neither. (Eade, 2004) Though Turner states that the individual accounts such as documents or oral narratives of the personal experiences allow us to envisage the social process of a pilgrimage, subsequently suggesting that even though a pilgrimage maybe an interior one between the divine or one or a social community to Mecca, a pilgrimage none the less is a social process. The pilgrimage as a social process is formed on the symbolic and structural elements, directly important when considering the apparent or lack of structure, anti-structure, communitas, and liminality. (Turner V. , 1974) (Turner V. , Pilgrimage and communitas, 1974) Turner observes structure as a more or less distinctive arrangement of mutually dependent institutions and the institutional organization of social positions and/or actors which they imply. (Turner V. , 1974, p. 272) Therefore in such pilgrimages as Muktinath in Nepal such social relations as caste cause the formation of distance and ine quality (Turner V. , 1974, p. 272) (Edwards, 1972) That religious pilgrimage serves to highlight social principles which are idiosyncratic to a particular religious system (Messerschmidt, 1980) Most of Turners work was based on the Christianity bases of a pilgrimage as a result communitas behaviour was expectedinherent principles and idealistic expectations (Turner V. E., 1978) though juxtaposed with the pilgrimage of Hinduism, it is very much a contradiction as a Hindu society is hierarchical and subsequently even though through transition this structured formation is enforced. In relation to the question being addressed, this example illustrates Turners specific concepts of liminality and communitas do not act coherently throughout all religious pilgrimages. Even though structure plays an element in this example of a pilgrimage. Pilgrimage does not inherently maintain or remove the structure, though Starke and Finke suggest that it rather strengthens the bonds between the individual to a symbolic community. Therefore even though Me sserchmidt suggests that structure is within the liminal stage and subsequently communitas does not exist, could not suggest that the symbolic bond that is being achieved is subsequently causing a communitus that exists in a greater place. (Stark, 2000) If we look at the Hajj, it is one of the largest and most well known religious pilgrimages to date, that brings pilgrims back into the time of the Prophets and into the utopian-like society that previously existed. This pilgrimage is international, members of Islam ascend Mecca to fulfil a once in a life connection to a spiritual community, it is a pilgrimage of the individual however a social process which will forever be linked into history, with the notion of communitus one could further suggest that the linking with a spiritual holy place one is not just linking to a communitus of the present but that of the past and future. If all are equal at this period of time and structure therefore the communitus above time. (McCarter, 2005 ) Turners concepts of liminality and communitas cast a light on the social process of a pilgrimage in some specific notions. It has been clear that Turner has centred all research majorly on a Christianity stance and subsequently foreshowing other religious pilgrimages that actually do not have the removal of the structure within the liminal stage and therefore the inherent structure is transposed from the pre to post formations of the individual. As the question directly asks to what extent does Turners concepts cast light, it can be seen that metaphorically Turner has been the lighthouse to the development of anthropology of the pilgrimage; however inevitably with the development of theories, Turners concepts notwithstanding will always foreground others. Though as Modern development requires less need for lighthouses, so do the concepts of Turner no longer stand alone with theories of social process and pilgrimage. Turner illustrates that ritual is a response to a societys demand bu t that is actively involved in the human interaction and meaning. His actions and concepts are far from static. (Deflem, 1991) Furthermore supported in new research of John Eade, one can see that within Turners concepts the expression of a pilgrimage as something that is not a daily process has once again cast a shadow on the mundane concepts of a pilgrimage. One, can see that the direct social understanding of a pilgrimage is that of a religious one; the search for the divine inspiration and where miracles once happened, still happen, and may happen again (Turner V. E., 1978, p. 6)

Willa Cather Describes Erotics of Place in her Novel, A Lost Lady Essay

Willa Cather Describes Erotics of Place in her Novel, A Lost Lady To discover an erotics of place in Willa Cather's A Lost Lady, takes little preparation. One begins by simply allowing Sweet Water marsh to seep into one's consciousness through Cather's exquisite prose. Two paragraphs from the middle of the novel beckon us to follow Neil Herbert, now 20 years old, into the marsh that lies on the Forrester property. This passage, rich in pastoral beauty, embraces the heart of the novel-appearing not only at the novel's center point but enfolding ideas central to the novel's theme: An impulse of affection and guardianship drew Niel up the poplar-bordered road in the early light [. . .] and on to the marsh. The sky was burning with the soft pink and silver of a cloudless summer dawn. The heavy, bowed grasses splashed him to the knees. All over the marsh, snow-on-the-mountain, globed with dew, made cool sheets of silver, and the swamp milk-weed spread its flat, raspberry-coloured clusters. There was an almost religious purity about the fresh morning air, the tender sky, the grass and flowers with the sheen of early dew upon them. There was in all living things something limpid and joyous-like the wet morning call of the birds, flying up through the unstained atmosphere. Out of the saffron east a thin, yellow, wine-like sunshine began to gild the fragrant meadows and the glistening tops of the grove. Neil wondered why he did not often come over like this, to see the day before men and their activities had spoiled it, while the morning star was still unsullied, lik e a gift handed down from the heroic ages. Under the bluffs that overhung the marsh he came upon thickets of wild roses, with flaming buds, just beginning to open.... ...arsh. A final glimpse of marsh turned wheat field comes in the fourth chapter of the novel's Part Two. Heavy rains have come to the Sweet Water valley, lifting the river over its banks and swelling the creeks. Cather reports that "the stubble of Ivy Peters' wheat fields lay under water," (121) raising the hope that Peters' intrusion upon the land is merely temporary, that given respite from human meddling, the marsh will reassert itself. I admit that this is my hope more than it is Cather's. But even if this is so, it is Cather who arouses the desire that invites me to hope. Works Cited Cather, Willa. A Lost Lady. Ed. Susan J. Rosowski with Kari Ronning, Charles W. Mignon and Frederick M. Link. The Willa Cather Scholarly Edition. Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1997. Williams, Terry Tempest. An Unspoken Hunger: Stories from the Field. New York: Vintage, 1994.

Age Cannot Wither Her, nor Custom Stale Her Infinite Variety Essay

Nor Custom Stale Her Infinite Variety In the production notes of Emily of Emerald Hill by Stella Kon, the writer uses a Shakespearean quote to describe Emily, â€Å"Age cannot wither her, nor custom stale her infinite variety†. This quote is actually from William Shakespeare’s Anthony and Cleopatra, Act II scene ii, used to describe Cleopatra’s agelessness and the many intriguing qualities she possesses. In this essay, I will aim to analyze the reasons behind the writer’s choice for using this particular quote to describe Emily and how it is relevant to the portrayal of Emily in the play. The timeline of this play is not a single, continuous timeline, but rather a broken one that leaps back and forth in time to portray different scenes where Emily reflects and reviews the events that have come to pass. It is through Emily’s reflection and review of her life that allows us to see how age has not withered Emily. No matter what events have happened over the years, may it be the death of her son or the death of her husband, Emily stands strong and is undefeated by them. She tells herself bravely, â€Å"It’s all over now. It’s all past, it can’t be changed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and still continues to look forward to living. The death of these two people in her life did not make her cling incessantly to the people around her, in fear of losing them. Instead, age and experience has taught her to let go of some things in life, one of which is her daughter, Doris, who was supposed to stay with her at Emerald Hill. This time, Emily’s willingness to let go and allow the children to make their own choices paid off. She was able to maintain a good relationship with her only daughter and is satisfied to know that Doris is living happily in America. Her willingness to let go also brought her closer to her remaining 3 children, who are willing to come back to Emerald Hill to visit her frequently with her grandchildren even though all of them moved away. Towards the end of the play, Emily seems even more content with her life as she plays with her grandchildren and sees them grow up, even though the house and land she owns is slowly deteriorating. Age has not withered her, but rather allowed her to enjoy the bliss of family love. The writer was very appropriate in using this phrase to sum up Emily’s life, as we see  Emily blossom from the unhappy young bride to the loving grandmother whom the grandchildren likes to visit. As Emily ages, her life becomes more fulfilled as she sees her children and grandchildren succeed and prosper in life. In this sense, Emily’s charm is ageless as her spirit did not grow old like her body. She remains optimistic about the future and enjoys every living moment she has with her family. Throughout the play, Emily engages in a one sided dialogue with people that are unseen on stage. Through the contents of Emily’s speech, we are able to determine whom she is talking to and see the drastic changes in the demeanor of her speech. I believe that this is where â€Å"infinite variety† appropriately describes Emily as she assumes different speech stances with different people. This brings out the many different sides of Emily, for example – the busy housewife of the family, the upper-class lady, the caring friend, the loving mother, and many other different roles she has to take up to ensure that the family is well-cared for, like clockwork. The writer chooses to intersperse the conversations in a way that the conversations highly contrast each other and brings the readers to attention the countless â€Å"varieties† of Emily. The interspersing of the conversations is very evident in Act One. In her conversation with Susie, she uses a lot of Singlish, such as â€Å"Ya-lah† and â€Å"ya† as she adapts an extremely casual tone. In the Singaporean context, her manner of speech may be even considered â€Å"aunty-like†, where she sounds like the common middle-aged Singaporean woman that we frequently encounter on the streets. From their conversation, the reader learns that Emily is extremely busy with the household errands whether it may be big or small. We come to see Emily as a busy housewife that is in charge of all that is going on in the house. However, as Emily makes her next call, her manner of speech is completely different. Not only does she do away with the Singlish, she engages a sophisticated and polite tone with the hotel staff. She gives off the impression of an educated upper-class lady, which is a huge jump from her previous â€Å"aunty-like† demeanor. Her next phone call goes to her best friend Bee Choo, where she assumes the same manner of speech as she did earlier on with Sophie. If the writer placed these conversations slightly  differently, the effect would not have been as striking. The act of the writer â€Å"sandwiching† the hotel’s phone call with that of Susie’s and Bee Choo’s brings about the first hint of Emily’s â€Å"varieties†. Throughout the rest of the play, Emily generally uses her posh upper-class lady manner of speech to speak to important guests and the upper-class families she socializes with, while at the same time also retaining her â€Å"aunty-like† and casual demeanor when she is speaking to her family or close friends. As we read on, we discover the many other â€Å"varieties† of Emily, of which there are 2 sides of Emily that stands out and contrasts each other – the sly Emily and the dutiful wife. I feel that it is in the convergence of these 2 sides of Emily the highlights the way where â€Å"custom cannot stale her infinite variety†. The first hint of these two qualities of Emily merging together is evident in Act Two, the part of the play where Emily celebrates her first Chinese New Year at Emerald Hill. In this part of the play, Emily slyly makes good use of tradition to get her sister and brother-in-law to pay homage to her. This event can be approached from two different perspectives. In the eyes of Emily’s mother and father-in-law, Emily is seen as the dutiful daughter-in-law who wants to pay her respects to her elders and make them happy, but in the eyes of Susie and her husband, Emily can be seen as the sly younger sister-in-law that forced them to kneel down to her. While the act of kneeling down symbolizes respect and reverence in Chinese tradition, in the context of Emily’s story, the act of Susie and her husband kneeling down to Emily actually symbolizes the consolidation of Emily’s position in the family as the head mistress. It is after this incident that Susie’s bullying stopped and the whole family came to view her as the woman of the household rather than the unseasoned young bride. In this part of the play, not only did the incorporation of a traditional practice not stale her, it elevated her charm and brought out even more captivating sides of Emily. Another event that combines both the sly Emily and the dutiful wife would also be in Act Two, where Emily calls Kheong and tells him to send out the invitations if he still wants to carry on for the big dinner on September the fifteenth. This dinner was a family tradition started by her  father-in-law to celebrate the end of the Japanese Occupation. On the surface, Emily is the dutiful wife who is still willing to help her husband host the big event despite his unfaithfulness. However, the hidden message here to Kheong is that no matter how much he wants to be with his mistress Diana Lee, he would never be able to properly present her to any important guests during these formal events as she is not his lawful wife. It is also made clear to him to make a choice between Emily and Diana as he comes to the realization that he would never be truly free of Emily’s firm grasp even if he does not live in Emerald Hill anymore. This is a prelude to Emily’s conversation with the audience later, â€Å"Look after your husband and family, yes: do everything for them, wrap them, bind them in the web of your providing, till they can’t lift a finger to help themselves: so that husband and son and sister-in-law must all depend on you, so that you control them and keep them in the palm of your hand.† From the way Emily socializes with her guests at Richard’s party in Act One, it is clear that people accept and view her as the one and only hostess of Emerald Hill. It is these little things that she does (host parties, does his laundry, cook his food) as a wife to wrap and bind Kheong in her â€Å"web of providing†, even when he is living with Diana. Emily knows this very well, and she uses her status as the well-known hostess of Emerald hill to cement her strong standing as Kheong’s publically acknowledged wife. Her conversation with Kheong asking about the invitations may seem innocent, but she is actually slyly reminding him about the importance of her presence inside his life. Again, Emily uses tradition to triumph and win back her husband. Instead of helplessly watching her marriage break apart, she made use of the family’s traditional event to save her marriage. At the same time, she also used her role of the traditional wife who takes excellent ca re of her family in many different aspects to prove to her husband that she is indispensible in his life, may it be socially or privately. In her own words, she is truly â€Å"the very devil of a wife and mother†, which in itself presents to us infinite varieties of Emily. Age has not withered Emily as her heart remains youthful and ageless, while custom was not only unable to stale her infinite varieties but had rather brought out Emily’s many intriguing qualities. As the material things around  Emily deteriorate and diminish in quantity, her spiritual bliss is ever-growing as she remains unforgotten by her children and grandchildren. I think that the Emily now is assured of her significance and worth in life, and never afraid again of being thrown â€Å"back into the gutter†. 1723 Words Bibliography 1. http://www.bartleby.com/70/4522.html 2. Emily of Emerald Hill by Stella Kon, Writing Singapore, An Historical Anthology of Singapore Literature, Edited by Angelina Poon, Philip Holden & Shirley Geok-lin Lim ——————————————– [ 1 ]. http://www.bartleby.com/70/4522.html

Classical View of Modern Society: A Comparison

As we approach the third millennia, the world grows into complexity. The world is now on the modern era with different changes from its cultural and intellectual movements. The world is facing a modern enlightenment. Nonetheless, there were also some improvements on how the modern society works but there were also a lot of varied and complex problems and challenges that emerge.Although, many people still believe that man can solve these problems and overcome these challenges thru meaningful analysis and introspection. Some search the answer from the theories of classical philosophers. They believe that this world will not be on what it is now without these people. Yet, the question still lies on their validity of the assertion s of the philosophers. Are these assertions ad theories relevant and appropriate in the modern times?However, we and these philosophers have varied experiences. Yet, their in depth knowledge of society bids us to believe them and study them. Like Marx, who died a hundred years ago, still had many followers. Marx on his early age had observed the plight of the masses against the bourgeoisie in the capitalist society. He, just like Friedrich Nietzsche, believed in the reconstruction of the society and in redefining the role of an individual. He argued that man’s will was not due to his like or to his needs, rather, society dictated him on the things that he should like or he should need.Society and man interacted, so according to him there is a need that a society, in which a man lived, should be fair and would be the instrument on predisposing justice on all the people. Marx further asserted that not a man could claim that his existence is largely due to himself, but rather all people existed because of mutual relationship and interdependency. He believed that all humans are interconnected in various ways, such as a social network, that whatever one does would surely affect others.However, through out his life, Marx had commented on the ambiguity and the disorderliness of the society. He had seen and observed the resistance and struggles between the different classes or strata of the society. He had observe that people with equal classes such as the bourgeoisie formed an alliances with each others to further their ends. Marx had observed that somewhat there is a line or an immense gap that had divided the people from intermingling with each other.He asserted that there was a categorizing force that bonded people with equal social status. As a result, the proletariat class was oppressed and injustice was done to them. Oppressions, according to Marx, might trigger bloody civil revolutions, and unrest in the society would prevail. In order to prevent this from occurring, Marx proposed a communist society, as what he described in his book together with Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto.Engels, a co-author, deemed that the The Communist Manifesto was exclusively the product of Marx’s brilliance, and the book was Marx’s. In the book, Marx and Engels first summoned up history. In their exposition through the dialectic philosophy, they both expressed that in the world there existed two opposing forces[1]. They had described that there existed those who oppressed and those that were oppressed. The main point on which the The Communist Manifesto revolved was the establishment of a communist society.A communist society, as what both described is a liberated society were people are all treated equally. Moreover it is a society that does not discriminate nor classify people because social status is no longer in existence. Moreover, communism proposed a society wherein people will no longer acknowledge his or her possessions rather his or her properties belong to everyone. Marx and Engels further stressed the need for centralization and organization of all the properties and efforts of the state for a common ground.The book proposed equal sharing and division of labors, equal all otment of profits and income. Moreover, in the long run, Communism also believed in the diminishment of the state and its ruler because Marx believed that if an ideal society (communist society) existed, the people would no longer be in need of a facilitator or an organizer to dictate or facilitate living. According to them, the state would only serve as a guide meanwhile that a communist society is not yet achieved[2].Meanwhile, another notable German philosopher was Max Weber, who unlike Marx traced the origin of capitalism and its role to the society. If one would read the title of Weber’s work and not the text, one may laugh because one cannot relate easily capitalism and the protestant ethic. However, Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism was a huge success because he had found sensible reasons on how the protestant ethic might have contributed to the origin of capitalism.Weber, who was considered one of the fathers of modern sociology, was ver y different as compared to Marx. Marx, although a Jewish, denounced the belief in the inexistence of God. He asserted that god does not shaped man according to his form, yet man conceptualized the absolute as a model- who is perfect and divine- due to his quest of attaining also that same stature. On the other hand, Weber had researched a lot on how religion had affected the life of man. He had wrote more descriptive and analytical essays after the The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. He had shown the effects of religion to the communal and shared cause of a society[3]. He had discussed that religious background define the wants and the needs of each person.For example, he had found out that the Hindus and the Buddhist were religious groups who taught that life is all about gaining material wealth or money. Yet they had other goals, like unity to the divine and freedom from the repeated cycle of rebirth. These assertions were parallel to the basis on how he analyzed th e origin of capitalism. Weber asserted that he did not claim that all the reasons of the birth of capitalism were mainly due to the protestant. He just cited some evidences that verified and attested his claim. The Calvinist, a protestant sect, according to him had that attitude of pursuing material wealth and worldly success. This was because- according to him as Calvinist believed-was the manifestation of God’s grace to the Calvinist.The Calvinist believed that God showed many signs in this earthly being of what will be their destination in the afterlife. Calvinist believed that if God made them rich, there is a large possibility that they will not suffer eternal damnation in the future. So in connection with this, they find ways on how to improve their status in life usually wanting to beat their fellow Calvinists in terms of material wealth[4].  Ã‚   So Weber asserted that this kind s of attitudes triggered the start of capitalism. Weber also considered the fact that th ere was also other factor which determined the start of capitalism. However, Weber considered religion to be a very immense factor in shaping society. These considerations lead him to immense study about different religions and their roles in different society.Unlike Marx, Weber in his economic theories still saw the importance of social class and did not promote its abolition. Weber believed that man’s work and capabilities were different and varied from each other so he stated that each man’s achievement and wealth will surely be different from each other. He rejected the ideas of Marx, saying that such an ideal society is not achievable.   It was very clear in the opening of his essay, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, that he favored capitalism.However, Emile Durkheim, a modern sociologist, in his book the The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, argued that there are existing social facts that determined society. These social facts according to h im were not related to an individual but were in existence and affect the entirety of life of an individual and the society as a whole. He is considered the father of modern sociology because of his endeavor to tackle society as purely sociology and away from psychology and philosophy. In his book, he described that religion is one of the social facts where an individual cannot go away from.In an individual’s search for identity and his role in the society, he is often confused with ethics and morality. Often, an individual was mystified on making decisions whether to do the good or to the bad. So Durkheim considered morality and ethics as one of the social facts that needed particular attention because most of an individual’s action was derived from them. In his book, he had expounded the role of religion on binding the individuals. He also described the collective morality that an individual received as he is affiliated to a certain religious group.He further his exp lanation saying that a religion was not simply based on the discernment of the right from the wrong, yet individuals learned the sacrosanct and the right by participating in worship and other religious activities. He described that these religious activities were the ones that defined the morality of an individual.Moreover, Marx, Weber and Durkheim seemed to have complementary views with regards to society and they have different ways on how they described its evolution and growth. However, all of them presented their ideas with concrete evidences and all of them deal with reality. However, Marxist view of society was very ideal and was very hard to attain. Specifically his propositions with regards to the abolition of the state and the thing which he said as common cause, those things were not achievable due to the existence of greed and self indulgence of an individual.However, Weber described that individual’s variety is the linking force that binds individuals. He discuss ed that there is no need to abolish the social leveling of individuals for abolishment will be an injustice to the capitalist or to those people who worked so hard in attaining their social status. Moreover, Durkheim agreed with Weber. Durkheim argued that education is the key in removing the self-indulgencies of an individual. He further asserted that education will limit the possession of an individual. Durkheim believed that proper education and discipline would hammer commitment and would foster the obligation of an individual to the society.   Durkheim’s assertion was well fitted and his arguments are most valid in terms of describing the modern society.BibliographyBottomore, T (ed), Karl Marx, 3rd edn,Blackwell, Oxford, 1979.Geras, Norman,   The Controversy about Marx and Justice, in A. Callinicos (ed.), Marxist Theory, Oxford University Press, Oxford,1989.Kà ¤sler, D, Max Weber: An Introduction to his Life and Work, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988.Là ¶ with, K, Max Weber and Karl Marx, Allen & Unwin, London, 1982McLellan, D, Marx Before Marxism, Macmillan, London, 1970.Marx, K, ,F Engelsb& M Malia, The Communist Manifesto. Signet Classic, New York, 1998.Weber, M, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Routledge, New York,1992.[1] T Bottomore, (ed), Karl Marx, 3rd edn,Blackwell, Oxford, 1979 pg.9. [2] Kostof, p. 18. [3] M Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Routledge, New York,1992, pg.3. [4]D Kà ¤sler, Max Weber: An Introduction to his Life and Work, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1988, pg 22.